Toward a holistic understanding of pastoralism

Pastoralism is globally significant in social, environmental, and economic terms. However, it experiences crises rooted misconceptions poor interdisciplinary understanding, while being largely overlooked international sustainability forums agendas. Here, we propose a transdisciplinary research approach to understand pastoralist transitions using (1) economic, environmental dimensions, (2) diverse geographic contexts scales capture emerging properties, allowing for cross-system comparisons, (3) timescales from the distant past present. We provide specific guidelines develop indicators this approach, within social-ecological resilience analytical framework change. Distinct systems undergo similar over time, crossing critical thresholds then either collapsing or recovering. Such an integrated view of multidimensional interactions improves understanding possible tipping points, thereby supporting better-informed decision making. The need paradigm shift pastoralism science policy pressing. This including participatory methods, can solutions urgently needed. most widespread land use worldwide.1Reid R.S. Fernández-Giménez M.E. Galvin K.A. Dynamics rangelands pastoral peoples around globe.Annu. Rev. Env. Resour. 2014; 39: 217-242https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-020713-163329Google Scholar, 2Sloat L.L. Gerber J.S. Samberg L.H. Smith W.K. Herrero M. Ferreira L.G. Godde C. West P.S. Increasing importance precipitation variability on global livestock grazing lands.Nat. Clim. Change. 2018; 8: 214-218https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0081-5Google 3Reid Kruska Global significance extensive lands societies: introduction.in: Reid Behnke R.H. Hobbs N.T. Fragmentation Semi-arid Arid Landscapes. Consequences Human Natural Systems. Springer, 2008: 1-24Google Scholar Present 100 countries through all inhabited continents (Figure 1), its extent may be up 60% world's terrestrial area—but see4Manzano P. Pastoralist ownership rural transformation: adequate path change.Development (Rome). 2015; 58: 326-332https://doi.org/10.1057/s41301-016-0012-6Google Scholar,5Johnsen K.I. Niamir-Fuller Bensada A. Waters-Bayer A Case Benign Neglect: Knowledge Gaps about Sustainability Rangelands. UNEP & GRID-Arendal, 2019https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/27529Google gaps uncertainties estimates. With between 50 500 million people living practice,6Zinsstag J. Ould Taleb Craig Health nomadic pastoralists: new approaches towards equity effectiveness.Trop. Med. Int. Health. 2006; 11: 565-568https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01615.xGoogle 7Carr-Hill R. Finding counting out-of-school children.Compare. 2012; 42: 187-212https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.652806Google 8McGahey D. Davies Hagelberg N. Ouedraogo Green Economy—a Nexus?. IUCN UNEP, 2012http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/9289Google 9Ghotge N.S. Kishore K. India: Warp Weft. Rainfed Livestock Network, 2016Google represents important contribution agricultural GDP many nations—e.g., 88% Mongolia10Shagdar E. Mongolian sector. Vital economy people, but vulnerable natural phenomena.Erina Rep. 2002; 47: 4-26Google 50% Kenya.11Nyariki D.M. Amwata D.A. value Kenya: application total approach.Pastoralism. 2019; 9: 9https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-019-0144-xGoogle Beyond value, also provides cultural contributions.12Manzano-Baena Salguero-Herrera Mobile Mediterranean: Arguments Evidence Policy Reform Combat Climate Mediterranean Consortium Nature Culture, 2018Google are often present harsh highly variable regions 1). These (SES) have risen fallen since their origins millennia ago, last decades witnessed increasing frequency magnitude sudden production losses.15Cottrell Nash K.L. Halpern B.S. Remenyi T.A. Corney S.P. Fleming Fulton E.A. Hornborg S. Johne Watson R.A. et al.Food shocks across sea.Nat. Sustain. 2: 130-137https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0210-1Google Scholar. pattern threatens future viability livelihoods poses great challenges achieving UN Sustainable Development Goals16UN General AssemblyResolution 70/1 Adopted by Assembly 25 September 2015. Transforming Our World: 2030 Agenda Development. United Nations, 2019Google nations. In contrast, forecasted climatic changes threaten limiting environments where, turn, remain resilient adaptive livelihood.17Krätli Schareika Living off uncertainty: intelligent animal dryland pastoralists.Eur. Dev. Res. 2010; 22: 605-622https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.41Google characteristics, coupled with growing human population predicted increase meat demands,18Gerber P.J. Steinfeld H. Henderson B. Mottet Opio Dijkman Falcucci Tempio G. Tackling Change Livestock—A Assessment Emissions Mitigation Opportunities. FAO, 2013Google make investing research—and policies—a timely endeavor. pressing advance justified number reasons. First, been linked policies that undermine adaptability systems, such as those promoting sedentarization privatization.1Reid Scholar,4Manzano Scholar,19de Jode obstacles mobility.in: de Modern Mobile. Future Production Africa’s Drylands. IIED SOS Sahel, 2010: 35-47Google 20Khazanov A.M. Contemporary pastoralism: old problems, challenges.in: Sternberg T. Chatty Conservation. Old Problems, New Challenges. White Horse Press, 2013: 5-23Google 21Bassi Pastoralists peoples: key issues advocacy emergence pastoralists’ rights.Nomad. People. 2017; 21: 4-33https://doi.org/10.3197/np.2017.210102Google trends associated persistent demeaning livelihoods, perceived obsolete inferior alternative compared other livelihoods.22Catley Lind Scoones I. at margins: horn Africa.in: Catley Africa: Dynamic Margins. Routledge, 1-26https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203105979-9Google Scholar,23Little Reflections Horn 243-249https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203105979-34Google Second, marginalization reflected weak presence UNFCCC COP24 showcased problem, panels specifically dedicated mountains,24http://www.aimf.org/news/2018/12/6/mountain-partnership-events-at-unfccc-cop24Google oceans,25https://www.spf.org/en/opri/news/20181222.htmlGoogle farmers indigenous peoples,26https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/conferences/nstitut-climate-change-conference-december-2018/side-events-and-exhibits-at-cop-24Google none pastoralists, no organized interest groups. Third, recent report highlights knowledge reasons behind detrimental policies5Johnsen emphasizing challenge studying systems—as depicted Figure 1—under single umbrella, integration essential if want updated incorporated into practice. It point out so far has isolated fragmented disciplines regions, few efforts cutting them. To best our knowledge, there appraisal maps relevance context planetary sustainability, upon which they depend. paper uses theory incorporates multiple slow, controlling, fast-moving ecological, institutional variables operating local global.27Folke Carpenter S.R. Walker Scheffer Chapin Rockström Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, transformability.Ecol. Soc. 15: 20https://doi.org/10.5751/es-03610-150420Google Scholar,28Patterson Schulz Vervoort Van Der Hel Widerberg O. Adler Hurlbert Anderton Sethi Barau Exploring governance politics transformations sustainability.Environ. Innov. Tr. 24: 1-16https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2016.09.001Google Maintaining thus entails management set parameters feedbacks. Social, political processes dependent,29North D.C. Institutions, Institutional Economic Performance. Cambridge University 1990https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511808678Google 30Hodgson G.M. How Economics Forgot History: Problem Historical Specificity Social Science. 2001https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203519813Google 31Kay critique dependency studies.Public Adm. 2005; 83: 553-571https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-3298.2005.00462.xGoogle legacies events affect dynamics current SES. includes both co-management (see Box 1 definitions). approaches, operationalized arrangements, potential empower making link communities vertical horizontal organizations (e.g., funding, policy), emphasize role collaboration social learning.32Armitage D.R. Plummer Berkes F. Arthur R.I. Charles A.T. Davidson-Hunt I.J. Diduck A.P. Doubleday N.C. Johnson D.S. Marschke al.Adaptive complexity.Front. Ecol. Environ. 2009; 7: 95-102https://doi.org/10.1890/070089Google 33Berkes Evolution co-management: generation, bridging learning.J. Manage. 90: 1692-1702https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.001Google 34Duit Galaz V. Eckerberg Ebbesson Governance, complexity, resilience.Glob. 20: 363-368https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.006Google 35Scoones Stirling Abrol Atela Charli-Joseph L. Eakin Ely Olsson Pereira Priya al.Transformations sustainability: combining structural, systemic enabling approaches.Curr. Opin. 2020; 65-75https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.12.004Google ability describe broad-scale historical pastoralism, nested arrangements scales, ecological outcomes, political, drivers constrain enable pastoralism. Strategies enhance include maintaining biological, diversity, sustaining mix stabilizing feedbacks creative renewal build capital (the productive base), fostering learning innovation co-management, facilitating flexible, redundant, adapt changing conditions, taking advantage windows opportunity transform system sustainable futures.36Folke Hahn Norberg Adaptive systems.Annu. 30: 441-473https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511Google ultimate goal resilience-based aligned development goals37Griggs Stafford-Smith Gaffney Öhman M.C. Shyamsundar Steffen W. Glaser Kanie Noble goals planet.Nature. 2013; 495: 305-307https://doi.org/10.1038/495305aGoogle effort capacity ecosystems maintain ecosystem services depend, same time enhancing well-being.38Brown change I: turn resilience?.Prog. Hum. Geogr. 38: 107-117https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132513498837Google ScholarBox 1Definitions relevant terms theoretical frameworkAdaptive process tested revised dynamic, ongoing, self-organized learning-by-doing (after Folke al.39Folke Elmqvist Gunderson Holling C.S. development: building world transformations.AMBIO. 31: 437-440https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.437Google Scholar).Adaptive governance: polycentric linkages; diverse, overlapping al.,36Folke Berkes,40Berkes Understanding uncertainty reducing vulnerability: lessons thinking.Nat. Hazards. 2007; 41: 83-295https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-9036-7Google Kofinas41Kofinas G.P. governance.in: Kofinas F.S. Principles Ecosystem Stewardship. 2009: 77-101https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73033-2_4Google Scholar).Governance: formal informal institutions, policies, rules, practices shape human-environment al.36Folke Scholar).Social-ecological resilience: groups individuals face particularly unexpected change, ways continue support well-being al.42Folke Biggs Norström A.V. Reyers Social-ecological biosphere-based science.Ecol. 2016; 41https://doi.org/10.5751/es-08748-210341Google Scholar).Transdisciplinary research: where academics different disciplines, well stakeholders civil society sectors, co-produce Guimarães al.43Guimarães M.H. Pohl Bina Varanda Who doing inter- research, why? An empirical study motivations, attitudes, skills, behaviours.Futures. 112: 102441https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2019.102441Google Scholar). Governance: Transdisciplinary primary concern stewardship factors exogenous controls maintenance slow fast variables.44Folke Polasky Westley Lamont Österblom III, al.Our Anthropocene biosphere.Ambio. 2021; 50: 834-869https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-021-01544-8Google Exogenous regional climate national-level economics, (Box not managed per se should recognized regulating condition state variables. Slow controlling regulate structure function, buffered effects relatively constant time. Critical functional types plants, disturbance regimes, ties stability, legacies, memory. Fast annual growth, wildlife density, agent-specific preferences) respond daily, seasonal, inter-annual variation. Rapid serve overwhelm leading regime shift.45Holling complexity systems.Ecosystems. 2001; 4: 390-405https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-001-0101-5Google Scholar,46Walker Anderies Abel Cumming G.S. Janssen Lebel Peterson G.D. Pritchard systems: working hypothesis approach.Cons. 6: 14https://doi.org/10.5751/es-00356-060114Google characteristic panarchy, hierarchical SES interlinked continual cycles accumulation, release, renewal.47Gunderson Allen C.R. Foundations Ecological Resilience. Island 2010Google Scholar,48Holling cycles.in: Panarchy: Transformation 2002: 25-62Google During first two phases cycles, undergoes steadily accumulation clearly visible gives impression apparently conserving balance among elements. apparent is, however, broken when accumulated points released, giving way phase crisis renewal. Classic examples these conservation-release patterns would biomass finally releases fires germination sun-loving seeds previously suppressed shadow; tensions usual functioning escalate releasing unrest proposal construction new, even revolutionary structures. founder conditions (plant community, scheme) established beginning cycle going define select next conservation phase, equal one because loss, addition, rearrangement elements (species, ideas) respect former cycle. Tempo equal, example, hundreds years release days. difficult sometimes see only changed. Therefore, requires simultaneous monitoring avoid undesirable transitions.44Folke recognize specificity explaining (SES dependency). 1) prism missing despite having characteristics. Better recognition, characterization, dependencies paramount, mind, following sections address needed progress direction. traditional inherently holistic,49Fernández-Giménez rangeland management.Ecol. Appl. 2000; 10: 1318-1326https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1318:tromnp]2.0.co;2Google 50Fernández-Giménez Fillat Estaque Pyrenean knowledge: documentation resource adaptation.Hum. 40: 287-300https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-012-9463-xGoogle 51Farooquee N.A. Nautiya Traditional Bhotiya pastoralists Kumaon Himalaya: addition.Int. Sust. World 1999; 60-67https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.1999.9728472Google 52Oba Harnessing management: three African case studies.Pastoralism. 1https://doi.org/10.1186/2041-7136-2-1Google 53Oteros-Rozas Ontillera-Sánchez Sanosa Gómez-Baggethun Reyes-García González J.A. transhumant Spain.Ecol. 18: 33https://doi.org/10.5751/es-05597-180333Google 54Sara M.N. Siida Sámi reindeer herding knowledge.North. 153-178Google evolving resources environment. tends compartmentalized, failing inform external interventions national policies. Both scholars practitioners repeatedly pointed lack comprehensive underlying cause5Johnsen Scholar,55Galvin People Savanna ecosystems: use, sustainability.in: Hill M.J. Hanon N.P. Function Savannas: Measurement Modeling Landscape Scales. CRC 481-496https://doi.org/10.1201/b10275-39Google crises. Advances practice will require transcending disciplinary boundaries.56Reyers Moore M.-L. insights navigating Anthropocene.Annu. 43: 267-289https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085349Google strongly SES—not less resilient, rather connections reactions due nonlinearities them more manage understand. small factor, prices, tenure, access markets, drought event (fast variables), cause abrupt, cascading resulting system-wide reorganizations,36Folke displaying consequences unrelated factors. Changes slower variables, degradation57Haddad F.F. Rangeland governance—Jordan.in: Herrera P.M. J.M. Manzano Baena Governance 2014: 45-61https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315768014Google shrub encroachment,58Pradinho Honrado Lomba Alves Aguiar Monteiro-Henriques Cerqueira Y. Monteiro Barreto Caldas Conservation EU priority habitats after collapse socioecological Mountain Rangeland.Rural Sociol. 82: 101-128https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12111Google determine c